World Music

The music of Africa

Africa is a very big and diverse continent with a lot of different traditions. In this section we will explore the common features of music within Africa not including North Africa which has been dominated by Arabic and Islamic cultures and has to be considered separately










The basics: What you need to know for the IGCSE Exam

Common features of the rhythmic style:

• In African music rhythm is the most important
• Use of polyrhythm - in African music it is common for several rhythm patterns to be played at the same time, sometimes with each part apparently in a different time signature
• Performers often improvise
• Syncopation - In a lot of African music, it is the 2nd and 4th beats, 'off' beats, which are clapped or stressed. The same custom has persisted in jazz, rock, reggae, soul, gospel and other popular music styles - all African-influenced
• Ostinato (repeated patterns)
• Layers of music - instruments joining one by one

Common features of the vocal music:

• Basic form of all songs is 'call-and-response'
• Melodies are usually short and simple and repeated over and over - this is known as ostinato
• Performers often improvise new melodies while others continue the original melody creating a polyphonic texture
• Songs include accompanied or unaccompanied solos, duets and choruses
• The chorus part is usually homophonic
• African singing often includes glissandos, slurs, whistles, yodels
• Melodies are usually organized within a scale of four, five, six or seven notes
• Often use small melodic intervals, recurring patterns and descending phrases
• Ostinato (repeated patterns)
• Parallel harmonies

African scale and harmony:

• There is no fixed pitch like in Western music
• Song melodies and instrumental music are based on whatever scale suits the needs of the performers
• Melodies based on the pentatonic scale (five-note scale)
• In African singing groups some sing the same melody four notes lower, some sing it five notes lower, and these groups never use the interval of a third. Some groups sing the melody in parallel thirds, but never use accidentals in the lower part, even if they should occur in the upper part. This means that the intervals created are sometimes major thirds, and sometimes minor thirds

Instruments

1. There are many different instruments in African music and they vary from region to region. The many different types of drum are called membranophones (because they have a skin), e.g. djembe and djun djun

1. The next group of instruments are called idiophones (resonant/solid), e.g. rattlers, bells, mbira, xylophones or balaphones

1. The next called the aerophones (wind instruments), e.g. African flutes (made by bamboo or horn), ocarinas, panpipes, horns from animals tusks, trumpets (made by wood or metal).

1. The last group is called chordophones (strings), e.g. zither, lutes (kora), lyres

Now let's see the three most important instruments for IGCSE:

The kora

A kora is a very beautiful African instrument with a resonating chamber made from a large gourd, cut in half and covered with skin. A hole is cut to let the sound out. The 21 strings are plucked by the musician's thumbs and forefingers. Koras are usually only played by men, and the playing skills are passed from father to son

Listen to the sound of kora:

The Balafon

The balaphone/balafon/African xylophone is a kind of wooden xylophone or percussion idiophone which plays melodic tunes and usually has between 16 to 27 keys. The wood is first roasted around a fire before shaping the key to achieve the desired tone.









Listen to the sound of balaphone/balafon:

The mbira

In African music, the mbira (also known as mbila, thumb piano or kalimba just to name a few) is a wooden board with attached staggered metal keys. It is often fitted into a resonator. It is tuned to a pentatonic scale. The mbira consist of metal or bamboo strips which are flicked with the thumbs of both hands. It is also part of the idiophones family of musical instruments










Listen to the sound of mbira:

Arabic music

By the end of the fourth century and the beginning of the fifth century the Roman Empire was beginning to crumble, and in the east the Arabs were gradually gaining power. They showed themselves to have great intellectual ability, and a strong culture in which music was considered to be important. Arab music has been influenced by the folk-music styles of various parts of the Arab world, which includes North African countries as well as those of the Middle East

The basics: What you need to know for the IGCSE Exam

Common features of the style:

• Narrow range of notes (tetrachord or pentachord)
• Repetition of phrases
• Use of quarter (micro)tones
• Use of ornamentation
• Singer alternates with instrumental group or with a single instrumentalist
• Small instrumental groups
• Use of syncopation
• Use of pitch bending, glissando
• Melody is all important: when musicians perform a melody together, each may play slightly differently and they also choose how to ornament it - this is what we call Heterophonic texture

Maqam (Arabic scale):

• Equivalent of Western scales
• They have different combinations of tones and semitones, and even include quarter-tones (a quarter-tone is half a semitone)
• There is no absolute fixed pitch - the tonic may be chosen to suit the performers
• The Arab scale consists of two octaves, divided into quarter-tone intervals (in Western music the octave is divided into equal semitones)

Rhythmic cycles - Iqa'at:

In Arab music there are fixed rhythm patterns or cycles called iqa'at, which are used to accompany songs and other music

Instruments

The Oud

The oud is pear-shaped stringed instrument commonly used in Persian, Arabic, Hebrew/Jewish, Greek, Turkey, Byzantine, Armenian, North African, Somali and Middle Eastern music. Construction of the our is similar to that of the lute

Listen to the sound of our:

The Rebab

The rebab is a type of a bowed string instrument named no later than the 8th century and spread via Islamic trading routes over much of North Africa, the Middle East, parts of Europe, and the Far East. The bowed variety often has a spike at the bottom to rest on the ground, and is thus called a spike fiddle in certain areas

Listen to the sound of rebab (it's very beautiful):

The qanun

The qanun is a string instrument played in much of the Middle East, Central Asia, and southeastern Europe. It's traditional music based on maqamat. It is a type of large zither with a narrow trapezoidal soundboard. Nylon or PVC strings are streched over a single bridge poised on fish-skins on one end, attached to tuning pegs at the other end

Listen to the sound of qanun:

The Nay

The nay (sometimes spelt net), is an end-blown flute that figures prominently in Middle Easter music. In some of these musical traditions, it is the only wind instrument used. The nay has been played continuously for 4,500-5,000 years, making it one of the oldest musical instruments still in use

Listen to the sound of nay:

Arab percussion

In IGCSE music you don't need to know the specific names of all Arab percussion instruments (except the darbukka, see the picture on the left)), but you do need to know about Iqa'at (the arab rhythmic cycles) and the important cyclical role of the percussion section in the classical Arab orchestra

Here is an amazing performance demonstrating the Darbukka, Daf (large frame drum), Riqq (similar to a tambourine), Sagat (finger cymbals) and even more...

The music of Japan

Japanese music, like most East Asian classical music cultures, tends to depend on words. Traditional Japanese music often has a vocal part and the descriptive nature of the instrumental music is usually reflected in the title. Court orchestral music is very different from theatre music but some characteristics apply to all Japanese traditions.

The basics: What you need to know for the IGCSE Exam

Common features of the style:

• There is NO chordal harmony
• The texture is mostly heterophonic and monophonic
• A light, spacious feel which sounds quite dissonant
• Melodic parts seems to start at different times, only coming together at cadences
• Japanese music tends to be 'through-composed', while Western music depends upon a more structured form in which there are answering phrases, variations and repeats, and a harmonic basis. Japanese music is a succession of new ideas, and although there is musical form, it does not depend on recognizable phrases being repeated
• The form of Japanese music falls under the headings Jo, Ha, and Kyu: 'Introduction: slow, careful start', 'Breaking away: slightly faster', and 'Hurried: even faster ending section'. These are a bit like Alap, Jhor, Jhala in Indian Music, but gagaku music usually describes scenes, stories or individuals, and there is NO improvisation

Gagaku (court) music and non-court music

• Gagaku music is the formal music for large ensemble of wind, strings and percussion 
• The non-court music refers to pieces for much smaller ensemble
• Each composition is really a melody interpreted by several instruments playing heterophonically

Some examples of Gagaku Music

  

 

Let's listen to an example of non-court music

There are many instruments in traditional Japanese music BUT the three most important for IGCSE exam are the follows (if Japanese music is NOT a world focus):


The shakuhachi

The shakuhachi is a Japanese end-blown flute. It was originally introduced from China into Japan in the 8th century. The instrument is tuned to the minor pentatonic scale. (A pentatonic scale is a musical scale or mode with five notes per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven-note) scale such as the major and minor scale. Pentatonic scales are very common and are found all over the world)

Listen to the sound of shakuhachi:

The koto

The koto is a long zither with 13 strings, developed from the Chinese ch'in. It plays the melody, sometimes adding short repeated melodic patterns

Listen to the sound of koto:

The sho

The sho, a mouth organ with 17 bamboo pipes, is very much like the Chinese sheng. It can play a simple version of the melody or add chords

Listen to the sound of who:

If Japanese music is your world focus, you also have to be able to recognize the next instruments:


The biwa

The biwa is a four-string lute played with a plectrum. It is used with koto in gagaku music. Usually, the biwa plays the melody, occasionally adding emphasis with a four-note chord

                        

Listen to the sound of biwa:

The ryuteki

The ryuteki is a horizontally-blown flute

                

Listen to the sound of ryuteki:

The hichiriki

The hichiriki is an oboe-like instrument

Listen to the sound of hichiriki:

Taiko (large drum)

Taiko is a large drum










Listen to the sound of taiko:

Kakko

Kakko is a small drum

The Music of India

Indian classical music is a very ancient and advanced art-form in many ways, more so than our own Western tradition

The basics: What you need to know for the IGCSE Exam (many of the things explained below are discussed in the video above)

Common features of the style

In Indian Classical music melody is all important - generally improvised against a low drone (tonic note). Almost any form of Indian Classical Music will contain the basic elements of drone (sustained tonic note - traditionally provided by the tanpura/tamboura), melody (rag) and rhythm (tal) - usually provided by the tabla. This provides a unique texture to Indian music (generally homophonic)

Form

Most pieces will contain three sections:

Alap: In this section the artist explores the notes of the raga with free improvisation against a drone

Jhor: This section is slightly faster and has more of a pulse

Jhala: This section is when the tabla player joins in - the musicians improvise in both rhythm and melody

Scale

Ragas: Indian scales (cross between a scale and a melody) - each raga has very strict rules about which notes can be used and how they may be used - even decorations and grace notes. All ragas are associated with particular times of day or night when they should be performed. The traditional way of performing a raga is in the three sections mentioned above - Alap, Jhor and Jhala

Rhythm

Talas - Rhythmic cycles:

Tha Tala or Tal is a repeated rhythmic pattern usually played by the tabla (small drums). There are over 300 talas in Indian Music and like the ragas they all have names. The beats are grouped into small sections within the pattern. The first beat of the cycle is known as sam (I'm sure grade 9 will remember this). It marks the beginnings and ends of improvisations so it is often accented

Instruments

The sarangi

The sarangi is bowed, short necked string instrument from South Asia which is used in Hindustani classical music. It is said to most resemble the sound of the human voice - able to imitate vocal ornaments

Listen to the sound of sarangi:

The sitar

The sitar is a plucked stringed instrument used mainly in Hindustani music and Indian classical music. It derives its distinctive timbre and resonance from sympathetic stings, bridge design, a long hollow neck and a gourd resonating chamber

Listen to the sound of sitar:

The tabla

The tabla is a membranophone percussion instrument (similar to bongos), which are often used in Hindustani classical music. The instrument consist of a pair of hand drums of contrasting sizes and timbres

Listen to the sound of tabla:

The sarod

The sarod is a lute-like stringed instrument of India, used mainly in Indian classical music. Along with the sitar, it is the most popular and prominent instrument of India, used mainly in Indian classical music

Listen to the sound of sarod:

The bansuri

The bansuri is a transverse flute of South Asia made from a single hollow shaft of bamboo with six or seven finger holes

Listen to the sound of bansuri:

The tanpura/tamboura

The tanpura/tamboura is a long-necked plucked string instrument found in a various forms in Indian music. It does not play melody but rahther supports and sustains the melody of another instrument or singer by providing a continuous harmonic drone

Listen to the sound of tanpura/tamboura:

The veena

The veena is a plucked stringed instrument originating in ancient India, used mainly in Carnatic classical music and Hindustani classical music

Listen to the sound of veena:

The santur

The santur or santoor is an trapezoid shaped hammered dulcimer or string musical instrument made of walnut with seventy-two strings

Listen to the sound of santur/santoor:

The harmonium

The harmonium or pump organ is a type of free-reed organ that generates sound with free-reed

Listen to the sound of harmonium:

The Music of Latin America

Note: the IGCSE does not prescribe much about what is to be taught and studied for this music so I will not go into much depth here. The main focus should be on knowing the instruments and common features of the MANY styles within WHOLE CONTINENT!!!

Latin American music encompasses rhythms and styles originated or related to Latin America and its influence in the United States and several European countries such as Spain or Portugal

Common features of the style

• Use of charangos / guitars
• Syncopated dance-like rhythms
• Lively/fast tempos
• Homophonic harmonic approach - melody supported by harmony
• Often simple ABA, ABACA type forms
• Melody uses repetition
• Use of intervals (mostly 3rd, 5th and 8th)

Common Instruments

For the purposes of the IGCSE exam, the presence of any one of the following instruments might indicate that you are hearing music of LAtin America

The Guitar

This one needs no introduction or explanation so I will skip it here...

The Charango

The charango is a small Andean stringed instrument of the lute family, which probably originated in the Quechua and Aymara populations in post-Columbian times, after European stringed instruments were introduced by the Spanish in the times of the colony

In this beautiful music you can hear the sound of charangos and guitars:

The Bandoneon

The bandoneon is a type of concertina or piano accordion particularly popular in Argentina and Uruguay. It is essential instrument in most tango ensembles from the traditional orquesta tipica of the 1910s onwards. German sailors and Italian seasonal workers and emigrants brought the instrument with them to Argentina in the late 19th century, where it was incorporated into the local music, such as tango

Listen to the sound of the bandoneon on this beautiful recording:

The Quena

The quena is the traditional flute of the Andes. It has 6 finger holes and one thumb hole, and is open on both ends or the bottom is half-closed. To produce sound, the player closes the top end of the pipe with the flesh between his chin and lower lip, and blows a stream of air downward, along the axis of the pipe, over an elliptical notch cut into the end

Listen to the sound of quena:

The pan pipes

The pan flute or pan pipe is an ancient musical instrument based on the principle of the closed tube, consisting usually of five or more pipes of gradually increasing length. The pipes of the pan flute are typically made from bamboo or giant cane; other materials used include wood, plastic, metal and ivory

Listen to the sound of a pan flute:

The Music of China

Chinese civilization is amongst the oldest in the world. A musical system and instruments were developed in China long before most other countries even existed. The ancient Chinese believed that music could influence people's souls and affect the world around them.

There is a typical example of traditional Chinese orchestral music:

The Basics: What you need to know for the IGCSE exam

Common features of the style

• Traditional Chinese music is very much based on melody
• Until the more recent influence of Western music, no chordal harmony or counter point was used
• Sometimes use of fundamental drone pitch
• Traditional Chinese music has a Heterophonic texture. In other words, each musician would play his or her version of the melody, adding decorations and variations of pace as suitable. However, the texture of traditional Chinese music can be monophonic and homophonic as well.
• Use of pitch bending and ornaments

Scales

The pentatonic scale (5 note scale) is clearly the most common used. In some cases others are used, but the pentatonic scale is easily the most prevalent

Rhythm

Common time (or 4/4) is the most traditionally applied within Chinese music. Traditionally there was no exact way to notate rhythm until western influence brought with it western standard notation

Important instruments

The Ch'in (also Guqin)

The ch'in is a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family. It has been played since ancient times, and was associated with the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius. It is sometimes referred to by the Chinese as "the father of Chinese music".

Listen to the sound of Ch'in:

The Dizi

The dizi is a Chinese transverse flute. Most dizi are made of bamboo, which explains why dizi are sometimes known by simple names such as Chinese bamboo flute

Listen to the sound of dizi:

The Erh-hu

The erh-hu is a two-stringed bowed musical instrument, more specifically a spike fiddle, which may also be called a "southern fiddle", and sometimes known in the Western world as the "Chinese violin" or a "Chinese two-stringed fiddle". It is used as a solo instrument as well as in small ensembles and large orchestras

Listen to the sound of erh-hu:

Gamelan music of Indonesia

Gamelan is the general term used for a set of musical instruments consisting of tuned gongs and metallophones. There are three different gamelan cultures in Indonesia based in central Java, Western Java (Sunda) and Bali. They have slightly different approaches and styles

The basics: What you need to know for the IGCSE exam

Some common features of this music

• Related types of instruments (bronze gongs, bronze metallophones, drums, end-blown bamboo flutes, bowed chordophones)
• Interlocking parts (both rhythmically and melodically)
• Related tuning systems, scales (slendro and pelog), and modes
• Multipart textures in which the higher-pitched instruments play at faster rhythmic rates than the lower-pitched instruments
• Melodic organization in which a main, slow-moving melody played on one or more instruments (the core melody) is embellished by faster-moving melodies played on other instruments
• Close associations with various forms of dance, dance-drama, and other arts
• A common historical foundation in Hindu religious cultures, which is reflected symbolically in the music
• Use of syncopation
• Variations in tempo
• Repeated patterns / Ostinato

Textures

• This is tough to describe in Gamelan because melodies are often repeated at double or half or quadruple the notated value of the prime melody. This means that most of the time the music sounds POLYPHONIC with various independent melodic lines, at other times it seems more HETEROPHONIC with all of the instrument articulating one melody at the same time in slightly different ways

Check out this short documentary movie about Indonesian Gamelan music made by Fani, Juni, Leona, Lyra, Neo, and Teo:

Bibliography

Elizabeth Sharma: Music Worldwide, General Editor - Roy Bennett, February 26, 1998